Advancements In Computers In The Last Ten Years Essays -

Advancements In Computers In The Last Ten Years Advancements in Computers in the Last Ten Years English 11 Hour 6 Mrs.Winn March 21, 2001 Lipske 2 Computers date back all the way to 300B.C. with the invention of the abacus. This was a calculating devise to do math and it made the people of that time lives a lot easier. That is what the computers of today do but so much more. I will start at the basics of computers while trying not to boar you. The first real computer that actually made calculations was the ENIAC that was made by the government in 1943. It costed $500,000, weighed over 30 tons, had 19,000 vacuum tubes, and consumed almost 200 kilowatts of electricity (computer chronicles 8). Now we have advanced to laptops that are one inch thick and 15 inches wide and can do a lot more than the ENIAC could. There have been thousands of advancements and new technology in computers in the last ten years but I am only going to skim the tip of the iceberg. In 1990, there were tons of new computers and new software but the big issues were the new processors that were super fast for their time. They could go at speeds up to 33mhz, which is how fast your computer brings things up on the screen. In 1991 Microsoft come out with a version 5.0 MS-DOS mode which gave computers more space to run their programs. Lipske 3 Also in 1991, Intel introduced a 50mhz microprocessor, which kill its other 33mhz processor of last year. Then a few months later MIPS Technologies come out with a 100mhz processor which started to make the processor group of the computer a very competitive area to come up with new technology for. In addition Hewlett-Packard Co. made the very first color scanner that could scan whatever you wanted and put it into your hard drive. 1991 was a big year for new technology in computers but thats not all. Pixar began to work with Walt Disney Company to make a film that was completely computer animated and eventually come up with the movie toy story. In 1992 there were three major changes in computers and the technology. First Microsoft stock reached a record high for a computer stock ever and peaked at $113 a share that year. Next Microsoft shipped its 3.1 version of window and it is a big hit and was the most abundant program on the earth. Next there was a big separation of powers that was IBM, Microsoft signed a divorce, and IBM became its own company. Lipske 4 1992 the divorce between Microsoft and IBM was the big factor of the year and you will see why in 1993. In early January of 1993, IBM reports a huge loss of $4.96 billion, which almost put the company down and out but not yet. Then in March of that year Intel came out with their fastest processor which was called the Pentium processor which ran at 200mhz. In 1993 you could see what a huge loss IBM took after getting away from the powerhouse called Microsoft. 1994 was a very slow year for all companies and technology for them. The only major thing that happened was Novell bought the Word Perfect Corporation for U.S. at $850 million. Also that the faster processor race was still on. 1995 was another big year especially for Microsoft. Microsoft releases Windows 95, which is the Windows that I am typing this on and in 95 was a break threw because of its graphics and easy use. Next Sony electronics releases PlayStation, which was built with a small computer in it for video games. Lipske 5 In addition, Apple computers released the first laser printer which was faster than the DeskJet printers and a was a better quality of clearness printed. 1995 became a really big year for the faster processor! 1996 was another slow year but the race for the faster processor was still on. However, there was one big push ahead with Microsoft making the Internet Explorer 3.0. Which mad the Internet at your own house organized and made a search engine. 1997 Microsoft bought WebTV for $425 million which made the Internet easy to use

RELEVANCY OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LIKE TANZANIA Essay Example

RELEVANCY OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LIKE TANZANIA Essay Example RELEVANCY OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LIKE TANZANIA Essay RELEVANCY OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LIKE TANZANIA Essay RELEVANCY OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LIKE TANZANIA By smzungu THE APPLICABILITY OF THE MODERNIZATION THEORY IN ACHIEVING DEVELOPMENT IN THE LEAST DEVELOPED COUNTRIES LIKE TANZANIA The term development is very broad and it has therefore brought many scholars in defining it. in economic view, Development can therefore be defined as the increase of level of economic development of a nation. This is looked upon by the economic indicators, for instance; income per capita, gross national product gross domestic product and the inflationary rates. So once these increase in a given country, it is said to have undergone economic development. However, this definition was further criticized by other scholars postulating that the perception on the income per capita is too general due to the fact that there are low class earners and high class earners in a given economy and all the economic indicators may be present but still no economic growth. Other scholars therefore came up other definitions on development. For instance, Walter Rodney who claimed that development can be defined on two ways; development in individual view of which he postulated that evelopment in an individual is the increased skill, capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being and a society that is developed is said to have increased capacity to regulate both internal and external relationships. Development can therefore be defined as an economy which has grown and has trickle down effect. That is to say a developed economy should have impact to the people. The modernization theory was developed in 1960. It comes from the capitalist point of view of development and it relates development with modernization. The theory states that a modern society is likely to archive economic development compared to a non-modernized society. A modern society is more productive due to the fact that children receive formal education, there is time consciousness and the needy receive more welfare. This is according to Smelters analysis. However, Coleman goes on saying that a modern society can be differentiated from a non-modernized society using three main features which are: differentiation of the political structure where the political components such as the executive, Judiciary and the parliament are independent and the decisions made annot be altered with by either of them. Secondly, secularization of political culture which refers to the freedom given to all the political parties and leaders to practice their political traditions and culture and finally there is the participation of the society in political systems. The theory further argues that development is a linear process and any society must go through some stages for it to develop. This is further supported by an American economist called Walt Whitman Rostow. Rostow was one 1960 which was like a modification of what Karl max did. He argues that in order for a ociety to undergo economic development, it has to undergo through five linear stages which are traditional society stage, pre-condition to take-off, take off stage, drive to maturity and mass consumption. it is therefore from these stages, we can conclude that a developed society is at the fifth stage of mass consumption. Rostow goes on saying that each stage has characteristics which a society in that stage is likely to undergo; For instance, the traditional society stage is the initial stage of development and every society underwent through this stage. It is generally characterized by low production due to poor technology. Agriculture is in existence but it is mainly subsistence, there are no classes since there is low population and people live in families. The economy in this stage is stagnant and there is no individual mobility. Pre-condition to take off is the second stage and Rostow has shown the characteristics of a society that is in this stage. He argued that external demands for raw materials for raw materials initiate changes, the technology begins to improve, the level of investment also increases, there is change in the social structure and individual mobility comes into existence. A society that is in this stage, has fulfilled the conditions to take off to the other stages. The take offstage is the third stage and is characterized by: manufacturing begins to rationalize and scale increases in a few leading industries as goods are for both export and domestic consumption. The production of secondary goods also increases than the production of primary goods, industries like the textile industries are the first to take off. Moreover, a society in the drive to maturity stage is characterized by the diversification of the industrial base, manufacturing shifts from investment driven owards consumer durable goods and domestic consumption, there is also rapid development of transport infrastructure and large scale investment in social infrastructure example schools and hospitals. Finally, the fifth stage is the mass consumption stage and is characterized by the industrial sector dominating the economy, there is a wide spread consumption of consumer goods and the consumers have more disposable income to purchase luxurious goods. The modernization theory is relevant and is therefore applicable in archiving development in the least developed countries like Tanzania. The underdeveloped countries should make efforts to adopt the characteristics mentioned in each stage by Walt Whitman Rostow to archive development thus the theory is applicable in the following ways: Diversification of the economy. This means that its not only one sector that is being depended in the economy but also other sectors. Tanzania depends on agriculture thus it is the one that dominates the economy. The industrial sector is still at a small scale comprised of small and medium industries most of them producing consumer goods. The agricultural sector being the core economic base of the country still, it is ot well mechanized due to the fact that most people still practice it for subsistence and the ones who practice for commercial purposes are faced by problems of lack of storage facilities, poor climatic conditions for instance most of the regions in Tanzania receive mean annual rainfall of about 800mm and it is not evenly distributed in the country. This makes the agricultural activities to be practiced seasonally hence there is no adequate supply. Tanzania therefore should not only the industrial sector, mining sector, tourism sectors and many others which can be of reat economic benefit to the country. Investment in the social infrastructure. Rostow claims that a society in the drive to maturity stage does much investment in the social infrastructure in there is adequate availability of health facilities, schools and so many others. Furthermore, Coleman stresses much on this by saying that a modern society is likely to achieve development due to the fact that there is the availability of formal education and the society receives more welfare. There to be modernized must therefore do much investment in the creation and distribution on the formal education. For instance the teacher to student ratio in the country is 49:1 of which its still very inappropriate to distribute education effectively. In addition, the number of health facilities in the whole country totaled up to 6321 which obviously the number is too small to cater for the very big population of the country, this shows how poor the country is in the distribution of the social welfare to its people. The improvement of the social infrastructure in Tanzania will therefore lead to a more educated and healthy population which would be much effective in the economic development of Tanzania. Development of economic infrastructure is another feature among the stages of economic development as mentioned by Rostow which Tanzania should also try to adopt so as to archive economic development. Economic development is much contributed for by a much developed transport system since it enhances the provision of goods and services as well as the raw materials needed in the manufacturing industries. The road transport system in the country is not much developed since it is not evenly distributed in the country and most of the roads do not reach the international standards. The airports are available but not with adequate planes to transport a variety of cargo to different parts of the world. This problem has contributed to a slow development of industries in the country as well as less exportation to other countries thus making the country to import more hence making the trade terms unbalanced. Therefore, Tanzania must improve its transport infrastructure so as to enable it be among the developed countries in the world. Smelters analysis entails that a developed country is characterized by the secularization of the political system in which the politicians and their respective arties are allowed to practice their political traditions and cultures. Evidently, this is common in most European countries. Tanzania is a multiparty country but the dominant party is the CCM which has been in leadership for so many decades now. Mostly there has been controversies and every party has its own thing to say and these differences have far much contributed ineffective working of the political leaders because they have to work as per the traditions of the political party in reign this limits the decision making of the leaders of which some could be of much importance to the economic development in the country. Tanzania should therefore practice secularization of its political system so as to reach Rostows highest stage of development. Finally, increase in the level of investment especially in the production of capital goods than the consumer goods. as per the statistics in from the Tanzania Bureau of Statistics, the countrys largest exports are coffee , cotton, sisal, cashew nuts, cloves, diamonds, gold, tobacco and tea. The country imports large quantities building and construction materials, machinery and transport equipment. It is from goods which are very much costly. Rostow argues that in the third and fourth stage of evelopment, the society invests much in industries and the level of industrial growth increases. Therefore, for Tanzania to improve its economy must invest on the import substitution industries which would deal in the production of the capital goods instead of importing them thus saving costs which can later be used to upgrade the living standards of the people in the country. In conclusion, the modernization theory as we have seen is relevant in describing development In different economic societies, the characteristics mentioned in each stage by Rostow, when they are implied, a country will definitely undergo economic development since ach one of them is designed to tackle issues which hinder development in many countries in the world. Most of the developing countries face problems like dis economies of scale, imbalanced terms of trade and so many others of which the solutions towards them are clearly explained in the modernization theory; this shows its applicability in the achievement of development in the least developed countries like -ranzanta. REFERENCES: 1. Walter Rodney. How Europe Undeveloped Africa Tanzania Bureau of Statistics. (Google. com) 2. World Bank Annual Report. (Google. com) 3. UNICEF Tanzania (Google. com) 4.

Columbus's First Journal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Columbus's First Journal - Essay Example It is from this statement by Hulme that this discussion is based and is intended to analyze the generic shape of Columbus first journal in regard to characteristics of a personal memoir, ethnographic notebook as well as a ‘compendium of European fantasies about Orient’. Discussion The 1492 saw Christopher Columbus plan and embark on a voyage to the Far East, which was later to gain popularity among historians and anthropologists as the great first voyage in Columbus life. In the light of understanding the objectives and purposes of the journal as is fondly, known ‘Columbus first Journal’ different literature has been written and studied. As against the common notion in which the exploratory expeditions of Columbus are often understood in, the first journal brings to light the great forces that entangled and dictated Columbus to undertake such a voyage as in 1992. It is worth noting that he was under the influence of the crown and religion as he embarked on t he voyages where the crown power required discoveries of new land for conquest and resource exploitation while the religious influence awaited such discoveries for expansion of religious influence. ... Despite the fact that the original form in which the first journal was written is not traceable to date, the truncated forms of the original documents gives great information on the details to the voyage. It is within the journal that the history of the first impression and culture that Columbus presented to the natives of the Far East and how it failed to live to Columbus’ expectations is revealed. This explains the creation of the myths surrounding the founding of the ‘new world’ as have been propelled down generational lines up to date2. It is worth noting that despite the fact that the history is seen through the eyes of Columbus as presented within the historical writings, Columbus had other people who accompanied him when in the voyage. The personnel who accompanied him in the expeditions had specific roles for which they were accountable to the crown as well as the church. They were obligated to keep Columbus under watch in order to honor the contractual ag reements to which the voyages were set. The original journal was written in first person reporting voice to imply that the author collects and puts together the accounts in detail of the first voyage as revealed by the original documents that were recorded by Columbus and the team. It gives a detailed report of the stage-by-stage or day to day exploration expeditions. It starts from the day that the sailors set off on third of August, which was on Friday 1492 and gives the account of every day as was spent before they safely landed back on fifteenth of March at the port where they had taken sail at for the expedition3. As a personal memoir or better enough a daily diary, the journal as presented contains the

Countrywide Financial

Countrywide Financial: The Subprime Meltdown Course:| MAN3065| | Team or Group #:| 8| Date submitted:| 02/27/13| Reference#:| 726077| | Term:| 2012-2| | Days:| M & W| | Time:| 7:05pm – 8:20pm| | Prof: | Hoa N. Burrows, CPA| Countrywide Financial: The Subprime Meltdown Questions: 1. Are subprime loans an unethical financial instrument, or are they ethical tools that were misused? We believed subprime loans are ethical tools that were misused.Subprime loans involve â€Å"lending to borrowers, generally people who would not qualify for traditional loans, at a rate higher than the prime rate† (Ferrell et al 385) meaning that it is a financial instrument in which borrowers benefit from accessing capital that otherwise would have been denied to them, and financial institutions benefit from charging a higher interest. What made subprime loans so attractive was the fact that it enabled low-income individuals and minorities (no qualifies for regular loans) to have access to home ownership.In the right hands, in the right time, a subprime loan could signify an important tool for different minorities to improve the quality of their lives by obtaining financing for more than just home mortgages but also school tuition, for example (Iacono). However, as the Countrywide Financial case illustrates, there is wide misuse of this tool by institutions that engage in indiscriminate lending for the sake of short-term profits at the risk of major financial downturn, as in the 2008-2009 financial crisis. Ferrell et al 388) Moreover, while lending money to low-income and minority families justifies a higher interest rate due to the risk of debt default, lending money to families that would very unlikely be in the capacity to fully repay their mortgage is a threat to both the financial institution – who would had lost the invested money – and the borrowers who would be forced to face foreclosure; but even more threatening were the endless securities backed on these subprime loans, whose real risk were only known by Countrywide Financial.By deciding to lend money indiscriminately, this company ended up misusing a financial instrument that would have otherwise brought on progress for its customers and the company itself. 2. Discuss the ethical issues that caused the downfall of Countrywide Financial Different ethical issues caused the downfall of Countrywide Financial including unethical actions of both the company and the borrowers. Firstly, Countrywide Financial misused the adjustable rate mortgage (ARM): Borrowers were told that they would not get negatively affected with an increasing interest rate as the value of their property would increase accordingly.Nonetheless, when the recession came many of these borrowers discovered they were unable to pay. (Ferrell et al 386). Secondly, between many of the accusations against Countrywide, two of the main ones were that â€Å"real estate appraisers began to inflate the value of homes to ens ure that loans would go through. † (Ferrell et al 387), and that they had a special VIP discount mortgage programs for high-end well qualified individuals who had no need for discounts, called â€Å"Friends of Angelo†, Angelo Mozilo’s – Countrywide Financial CEO -friends including Senator Charles E. Schumer and Representative Henry A.Waxman. (Ferrell et al 390) Fourthly, Countrywide Financial was negligent in knowingly â€Å"giving out highly risky loans to people who could not afford them for the sake of quick profit† (Ferrell et al 389) which also brought out the question of whether the company was also involved in predatory lending – misleading its borrowers. (Ferrell et al 389) On the other hand, borrower’s actions were also unethical as it was proven they were dishonest in their loan applications: â€Å"90% of liar loan applicants knowingly overstated their income, with three out of five overstating it by at least 50%. However th is fact only seems to prove that Countrywide was helping borrowers falsifying information in order to secure the loan. (Ferrell et al 389) 3. How should Bank of America deal with potential ethical and legal misconduct discovered at Countrywide Having acquired Countrywide Financial’s debt and bad reputation, Bank of America should focus on disconnecting itself from previous affiliates that were a part of the former company during their financial meltdown, such as ex CEO Angelo Mozilo, ex COO David Sambol, and ex CFO Sieracki (Ferrell et al 392).In addition to this they should make sure that the required information is being promptly provided to pertaining authorities. Moreover, Bank of America should ensure that a proper risk management policy is set up, continuing as well with programs to ease loan terms and prevent borrowers from losing their homes, such as the Countrywide Comprehensive Home Preservation Program which helped consumers refinance their debt. Ferrell et al 388) In conclusion, Bank of America should continue with their current actions whilst making sure the authorities are getting the information necessary to reach the bottom of what really happened at Countrywide Financial, and thus prevent this situation from ever happening again. . Works Cited Ferrell, O. C. , John Fraedrich and Linda Ferrell. Business Ethics: Ethical Decision Making and Cases. Mason: South-Western, 2011. Iacono, Tim. â€Å"Iacono Research†. One-Third of Student Loans Are Subprime Loans. 04 02 2013. 22 02 2013 .

McKinsey case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

McKinsey case study - Essay Example An organization can get competitive advantages in the market than other competitors by applying knowledge management efforts. It also helps to do more improved and innovative performance. Sharing of knowledge is a major part of knowledge management system which can overlap the traditional learning procedure. In this regard SECI model can be used by any organization to handle its knowledge management system in a better way. The model is mainly focusing on the tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. In this model four modes of knowledge conversion are identified. These modes are Socialization, Externalization, Combination and Internalization (Becerra-Fernandez and Leidner, 2008). This model is describes as follows. 1. Socialization [Tacit to Tacit] – In this mode knowledge is passed on through practice, observation, guidance and imitation. Tacit knowledge is such kind of knowledge that is difficult to transfer to another person by verbalizing it or by means of writing it down. Here social interaction is an example of tacit to tacit knowledge transfer system. Sharing knowledge through face to face or through experience both come under this mode. Meeting, conference etc are the examples of socialization in which people can get knowledge through sharing experiences. This kind of knowledge sharing system is time and space specific and also difficult to formalize. 2. Externalization [Tacit to Explicit] – In this mode tacit knowledge is transformed or coded into manuals or documents so that it can distribute in a easier way throughout the organization. Every employee of a certain organization can get access of knowledge through this system. Here tacit knowledge is coded into explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge means such kind of knowledge that is codified, articulated, expressed, stored in certain media and readily transmitted to

Epidemiology of Bio-Terrorism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Epidemiology of Bio-Terrorism - Essay Example Terrorism donned a new role and it took the form of bio-terrorism in which hazardous chemicals were used to attack people. Anthrax was the first material used in bio-terrorism. (Grey, 2006). The article provides a complete picture of the stages in which anthrax affects a person. But the article fails to explain the methods adopted by the terrorists who perform this task. The epidemiological framework consists of various methods and modules. During the 1800’s and 1900’s, people in America were affected by Bacillus Anthracis. People who were in direct contact with the animal products and its related industries were the only victims. (Jernigan, 1996). In the mid-1900’s, America saw the first case of inhalational anthrax. In this case, anthrax was purposely used to attack a person. People who came in direct contact with it were affected by this bacterium. People who worked in the postal department were most prone to getting affected by this disease. The patient’s clinical data was collected and tested and the reports confirmed that these people were affected by inhalational anthrax. (Koehler, 2003). It is one of the epidemic diseases and each of the affected patient’s exhibited different symptoms but most of them had fever, chills and fatigue. The patients were treated with median incubation after which they were given certain antibiotics. Pleural effusion was the common problem in all the patients who were affected by anthracis. Though antibiotics were given, some of them showed no signs of improvement. (Guillemin, 2004).The complication depended on the case history of the patients. Inhalational anthrax affected the chest of the person who inhales it. It was a common phenomenon and chest x-ray of the patients revealed certain abnormalities in the chest. Though the counts of white blood corpuscles of most of the patients were normal, they showed some

Yoga As A Health Benefit

Yoga As A Health Benefit The classical techniques of Yoga date back more than 5,000 years. While Yoga has been used in India for centuries to treat disease, only recently has there been scientific evidence and growing interest in the benefits of therapeutic yoga as a specialty treatment which combines postures, breathing exercises, mindfulness, and meditation. The cross-fertilization of Western science with ideas from ancient Eastern wisdom systems has been adding scientific legitimacy to the discipline of yoga over the last few decades. Medical professionals and scientists are pursuing yoga-related research, focusing on its potential to prevent, heal, or alleviate specific conditions such as heart disease, high blood pressure, carpal tunnel syndrome, asthma, diabetes, and symptoms of menopause, and its benefits as a technique for relieving stress and coping with chronic conditions or disabilities. Evidence-based publications report on clinical benefits associated with yoga, including reaction time, respirat ory endurance, proprioception, and other physiological and psychological effects. Mudras (yoga for the hands) are defined as hand gestures that are historically grounded in the ancient Indian arts and sciences. Referring to gestures or attitude, the science of yoga describes mudras as a means to control or alter the mood by reorienting or focusing the flow of prana (vital spiritual energy) in desired directions or concentrating it at specific places within the body. Modern yoga literature explains Mudras as seals or circuit bypasses for energy currents. Mudras can be used to improve hand strength and flexibility after injury because they are a simple, portable, enjoyable, and economic exercises and research shows that regular yoga practice can be used to improve overall body strength and flexibility. Some of what is taught by yoga teachers in classes, books and journals defies modern understanding of anatomy and physiology or is grounded in metaphysics that is off-putting or virtually incomprehensible. But now, scientists are able to look at the body and brain with increasing precision, detecting subtle changes that practitioners of yoga and meditation undergo. The majority of scientific research on yoga takes place in India and is very difficult to access in the United States. Because few yoga studies were previously conducted in the West, most American scientists dismissed Indian yoga research due to methodological problems, such as a lack of control groups in the studies. The methodology has improved significantly and it can be argued that currently, many Indian yoga studies are superior to many of those conducted in the West. Given the Western allopathic model, translating the information using the language and perspective of science as much as possible is recommended to demo nstrate to physicians and other health care professionals how therapeutic yoga can benefit patients. As yoga moves deeper into the mainstream, and as research dollars for complementary and integrative health systems increase, the number of yoga practitioners and health professionals are increasing. The number of randomized clinical trials is growing as well. Improved study designs are being used both in India and the United States. In just the last few years, research has documented the efficacy of yoga for such conditions as back pain, multiple sclerosis, insomnia, cancer, heart disease, and even tuberculosis. The 2008 Yoga in America study shows 15.8 million people currently practice and also revealed an upward trend in the therapeutic medical use of yoga. According to the study, nearly 14 million Americans reported a doctor or therapist recommending yoga to them. Nearly half of all adults agreed that yoga would be a beneficial treatment for a medical condition. Yoga as medicine represents the next great yoga wave, says Kaitlin Quistgaard, editor in chief of Yoga Journal. In the n ext few years, we will be seeing a lot more yoga in health care settings and more yoga recommended by the medical community as new research shows that yoga is a valuable therapeutic tool for many health conditions. There are 112 clinical trials utilizing yoga currently listed on the National Institutes of Health web site. These involve numerous medical conditions including arthritis, fibromyalgia, cancer, chronic neck pain, chronic back pain, asthma, kyphosis, etc. The individual trials are being conducted at medical centers across the country and involve thousands of patients. Evidence regarding the medical benefit of yoga shows mixed results. There are several reasons for this, including funding obstacles. The biggest challenge yoga studies face is that given the best intentions, it is difficult to properly ascertain the effectiveness of yoga as an exercise therapy. Yoga is not easily fit into the form of study that is most often used to prove effectiveness, the double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. While it is possible to design a placebo form of study, it would be exceedingly difficult to conceal from participants and researchers the practice of real yoga versus an inauthentic version. It is inevitable that some compromise with the research standards is required, and the compromise used in most studies is not ideal. Oftentimes, the practice of yoga is compared to no treatment. The problem with such studies is that a treatment, any treatment, frequently appears as better than no treatment due to multiple factors. A better trial design would be compare yoga practice to a generic form of exercise, such as daily walking. To date, this design has not been commonly implemented. Hatha yoga has been studied in patients with carpal tunnel syndrome. In one study, forty-two individuals with carpal tunnel syndrome were randomly assigned to receive either yoga instruction or a wrist splint for a period of eight weeks. The results indicated that yoga was more effective than the wrist splint. The study results were soundly criticized due to a serious design flaw as participants in the control group were simply offered the wrist splint and given the choice of using it or not. Critics stated they would have preferred for subjects to have received options such as fake laser acupuncture or phony yoga postures rather than nothing. Experience from numerous studies shows that when people believe they are receiving an effective treatment, they report improvement regardless of the nature of the treatment. The School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania used yoga to treat a group of patients with osteoarthritis of the hands. The treated group improved significantly more than the control group in pain during activity, tenderness, and finger range of motion. The randomized controlled clinical trial, published in the Journal of Rheumatology in 1994, concluded, This yoga-derived program was effective in providing relief in hand osteoarthritis. Further studies are needed to compare this with other treatments and to examine long-term effects. In another small study published in the British Journal of Rheumatology, it was found that a three-month program of gentle asana and breathing techniques resulted in improved grip strength in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. As an interesting note, Robin Monro, PhD, of the London Based Yoga Biomedical Trust found that that all patients wished to continue the practice after the study was finalized. Yoga poses called asanas work by safely stretching muscles. This releases lactic acid that builds up with muscles use and causes stiffness, tension, pain, and fatigue. In addition, yoga increases the range of motion in joints. It may also increase cellular joint lubrication. The outcome is a sense of ease and fluidity throughout the body. Yoga stretches not only muscles, but the bodys soft tissues as well, including ligaments, tendons, and the fascia sheath surrounding muscles. Vigorous exercises and precise alignment poses can provide strength and endurance benefits. Some yoga styles use specific meditation techniques to quiet the constant mind chatter that often underlies stress. Other yoga styles use deep breathing techniques to focus the mind on breath. Once focused, the mind settles down and becomes more calm and quiet. Yogas anti-stress benefits may include a reduction in catecholamines, the adrenal gland stress hormone. Another benefit of yoga is its unique way of massaging th e internal glands and organs of the body in a thorough way, including those such as the prostate gland that are rarely stimulated externally. Massage and stimulation of the organs can serve to prevent and also provide early forewarning of disease. A practicing physician for over twenty years, in his book Yoga as Medicine, David Coulter, MD, says that yoga is the most powerful system of overall health and well-being he has ever seen. He describes it as a single comprehensive system that, among other things, has been shown to increase strength, flexibility, and balance, enhance immune function, lower blood sugar and cholesterol levels, facilitate weight loss, strengthen bones, prevent injuries as well as improve psychological well-being. As the major blockages of physical and energy flows are removed through the practice of yoga asanas, pranayama and bandhas, it is believed that advanced practitioners utilize Mudras to effect extraordinary self-control of prana in the brain and the central nervous system. Swami Satyanand Saraswati observed that Mudras provide a means to access and influence the unconscious reflexes and primal, instinctive habit patterns that originate in the primitive areas of the brain around the brain stem. They establish a subtle, non-intellectual connection with these areas. Each Mudra sets up a different link and has a correspondingly different effect on the body, mind and prana. Echoing that concept is a recent study sponsored by the NIH National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD), in collaboration with the Hofstra University School of Medicine and San Diego State University, which showed sign language being largely processed in the same brain regions as spoken lang uage, including the inferior frontal gyrus in the front left side of the brain and the posterior temporal region toward the back left side of the brain. Dr. Braun believes that developing a better understanding of brain systems supporting gestures and words may also help in the treatment of some patients with aphasia. The palms and fingers of the hands contain an abundance of nerve endings, which continually emit bioelectric energy. Touching or pressing specific points on the fingers and the thumb folded in specific manner activates specific nerve or nerve bundles thus triggering specific signals. This is what makes certain Mudras suitable for enhancing mental and physical effects. The importance of specific points and portions of hand (and other parts of the body) can also be seen in healing effects of acupressure on the physical body. The advanced effects of yoga and of Mudras in particular are associated with mental refinement, deep meditation and spiritual conditioning. Even for beginning practitioners, Mudras utilized as physical exercises can increase manual dexterity and can be effective for stretching and maintaining hand mobility. Exactly when and where systematized and stylized gestures originated remains a mystery, however almost all ancient cultures made use of hand signs in one way or another. Mudras, or hand gestures, were employed in early religion, rhetoric, art, social gatherings and by trade guilds. The Comacines, the builders of Europes finest cathedrals, and the trade guild known as the Dionysiac Artificers who were responsible for the construction of ancient buildings and structures, all made use of hand signs as a system of communication and protection of their conclaves or secret meetings against unauthorized entry. In Hinduism and Buddhism, hundreds of Mudras were used in yogic practice for ceremonies, drama, and dance. Most of these were symbolic in nature, but others had metaphysical virtues. There are literally hundreds of Mudra-gestures formed by the ancient yogis and sages. They are all based on four basic hand positions: the open palm, the hollowed palm, the closed fist, and the hand with fingertips together. Cheironomy is the term used to denote the study of ritualistic hand gestures and spontaneous movements in directing vocal music. This primarily refers to esoteric symbolism and certain forms or gestures and signs used in religious rites. The religious ceremonies of many ancient cultures considered gestures vital as they were believed to contain powers to call upon the gods, to unfold powers, and to affect surroundings. In occultism, each hand gesture embodies a particular significance and force. Ancient Egyptians regarded even the pictorial representations of their pharaohs as highly potent. Whether creating statutes or depicting pharaohs in murals, the artists were careful to represent Mudras accurately, fearing harsh consequences for misrepresentation. Mudras also play an important role in the Indian Classical Dance. There are single hand gestures, called Asamyukta Hastah, which can be performed by either the right hand only or the left hand only or by both hands simultaneously without combining the two hands. The gestures formed by uniting both hands are called Samyukta Hastah. According to the ancient scripture Abhinaya Darpana (Nandikeshwara) there are twenty-eight single hand gestures and twenty-four united hand gestures. These hand gestures or Mudras are frequently used in the Indian Classical Dance known as Bharatanatyam. There are Mudras which represent all the Gods and Goddesses (Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Saraswati, Lakshmi, etc.), the four different castes (Brahmana, Kshatriya, etc.), different relations (Mother, daughter, etc.), the nine the nine planets (Sun, moon, etc.), rivers (Ganga, Yamuna, etc.), animals (Lion, deer, etc.) and many others. There are numerous publications that identify the clinical benefit of yoga practice for various medical conditions, including oncology, osteoarthritis, and rheumatoid arthritis. However, these publications do not specifically report on the upper extremity sensorimotor, musculoskeletal, or neurophysiological results for hand therapy patients. As hand therapists are becoming more aware of the importance and value of respiration, core body strength, and posture to upper extremity function, the incorporation of hand Mudras could provide an integrated approach that broadens the treatment repertoire. On a tissue-specific level, differential tendon gliding, nerve gliding, and proprioception could be facilitated within a calming and holistic context using Mudras. It is well known that movement distributes lubricating synovial fluid, continually secreted into the joint by its synovial lining, over the surface of the cartilage that caps the bones. When the cartilage is well lubricated, the joi nt surfaces glide more easily across each other, reducing wear and tear. Joint movement also helps bring nutrients into cartilage, which lacks its own blood supply. Cartilage acts as a sponge that gets squeezed by movement. Stale synovial fluid, depleted of nutrients, is expressed thus allowing a fresh supply to soak in from the joint when the compression is released. Areas of the joint surface that are rarely used because they are outside the normal grooves of movement fail to get the nutrients they need and over time tend to degenerate. The practice of Mudras can be used to stimulate these little-used surfaces, a prime example of the use it or lose it theory. Mudra exercises can be individually tailored following injury to target specific muscles for the purpose of reducing stress, increasing range of motion, reducing pain, and increasing flexibility and strength. And experts in therapeutic yoga point out that individualizing a treatment approach is oftentimes vital in achieving a success outcome. In addition to working directly with specific injuries or medical conditions, yoga therapists also emphasize the role in healing that mindfulness and awareness the body plays. It can be been argued that tension held in the body often originates in the mind and must be dealt with there first. It is common knowledge that stress contributes to the development and prolongation of many medical conditions, which in turn can delay healing. Experts have noted that while a complaint may show up, for example, as a wrist disorder, effective treatment requires consideration of the upper extremity and torso as well as the role the mind plays in the condition. As part of medical treatment, Yogic philosophy would take into consideration posture, alignment, communication, and the effects of stress on the disorder. There will probably never be scientific validation for each style of yoga or Mudra practice, much less all the possible combinations. As B.K.S. Iyengar says Words fail to convey the total value of yoga. It has to be experienced. Some of yogas aims, like equanimity and compassion, are difficult if not impossible to quantify. And while the current scientific evidence is not robust by Western standards, the growing body of evidence that does exist should not be ignored. We must take some of what we know about yoga on faith-not a faith based on blind acceptance of doctrine, but one grounded in everyday experience. Much more research is needed, with studies being designed to take advantage of potentially beneficial interventions. Strategies that maximize compliance among subjects at greater risk for low adherence will be important for future trials, especially complementary treatments requiring greater effort than simple pill-taking. Carefully exploring the vast universe of yogic healing can provide affordable access to compelling new models of balance and wholeness. Taking a new approach, the middle ground between uncontrolled observations and reductionist philosophy may provide overall greater value to patients. In this age of health care reform it becomes imperative to add to the body of knowledge through not only randomized controlled trials, but through studies of screening and diagnostic tools based on Eastern systems of medicine and allied health sciences, outcome studies, cost effectiveness analyses, case-control series, and surveys with high response rate. As a therapeutic modality, yoga continues to show great potential for widespread use. The boundaries are still fluid, however provided that scientists, yoga therapists and physicians continue to communicate and learn from each other, the use of yoga practice and Mudras can expand as an noninvasive and effective means to improve strength and flexibility following injury.